The Daguerreotype: Capturing Forever (part 2 of 3)

A Daguerreotype image is created when a photosensitive layer of silver is applied in a mirror like coating to one side of a copper plate. After taking a picture the plate is developed by exposure to mercury vapor and then permanently fixed by placing it into a bath of hyposulphite of soda. A piece of glass is placed over the image and sealed at the edge to protect the delicate image against abrasion and oxidation. The sealed Daguerreotype was then placed in case (in America) or hung on the wall (in Britain).

Early Daguerreotypes tended to be dark with exposure times that required the sitter to remain still for several minutes. Rapid advances in chemistry and the process in the early 1840s cut exposure times to 10-15 seconds and improved image quality dramatically. As early as 1842 hand coloring of the Daguerreotype was offered, at an additional cost. By the end of the decade the hand-painted portrait miniature, which had been the most “affordable” method of capturing the human likeness was a thing of the past.

Vigilant Fire Company, Baltimore

For the first time in history ordinary people could have a faithful picture of themselves (for between 25 cents to $ 2.50 depending on the size of the image). By 1853 an estimated three million Daguerreotypes were being developed in America per year with perhaps thirty million produced before its replacement by more convenient and less costly photograph processes in the late 1850s.





Daguerreotype of a couple
holding a Daguerreotype

The Daguerreotype: Capturing Forever (part 1 of 3)

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“Blessed be the inventor of photography! I set him above even the inventor of chloroform! It has given more positive pleasure to poor suffering humanity than anything that has 'cast up' in my time or is like to - this art by which even the 'poor' can possess themselves of tolerable likenesses of their absent dear ones.”

— Jane Welsh Carlyle
October 21, 1859
The Collected Letters and Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle (1883)

I hold a worn dark-colored hinged box that is smaller than the palm of my hand. My finger pushes open the delicate brass hook and I carefully open it. An embossed square of red-velvet fills the right hand side. On the left is a small brass frame with an oval of glass. At first I see only a faint outline appearing through the glass but as I move the frame up and down, left and right an image appears and disappears. I find the perfect angle and suddenly a young woman looks at me. She is wearing a light colored dress, the details of which I cannot make out. Over her shoulders is a shawl with alternating thick black and white stripes. But, most striking, is her wide hat that which stretches from one side of the frame to the other. The undersides of the hat are dark and frame her steady, unconcerned face. I am looking across more than a hundred and fifty years of time to the birth of a new technology. I am holding a Daguerreotype.

On August 19, 1839 the French government gave “free to the world” (except to Britain) the secret of the Daguerreotype named for French inventor Louis Daguerre, who in collaboration with Joseph Niépce perfected the technique. It was the earliest photographic process commercial available throughout the world.

Monument in honor of Louis Daguerre
Presented by the Photographer’s Association of America August 15, 1890
On the grounds of the Smithsonian Institute, Washington, DC

The Firefly (part 1 of 3)

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Firefly

A little light is going by,
Is going up to see the sky,
A little light with wings.

I never could have thought of it,
To have a little bug all lit
And made to go on wings.

— Elizabeth Madox Roberts
Under the Tree (1922)

Catching Fireflies print by Marie Fox

Like most people from west of Kansas I had never seen a firefly. I had thought of them as a bit of myth. After my first sighting last summer I found out that fireflies have always flown at the edge of myth and magic. To the ancient Maya of Central America they were one of the gods. They represented the stars of the heavens and the glowing smoky tip of a native cigar. Often their human/god likeness was used to decorate ceramic bowls.







Detail from a Mayan codex-style vase

"Amongst these Trees, night by night, through the whole Land, did shew themselves an infinite swarme of fierie Wormes flying in the Ayre, whose bodies being no bigger than common English Flyes, make such a shew and light, as if every Twigge or Tree had beene a burning Candle."

Description of fireflies from Sir Francis Drakes visit to
an island south of the Celebe islands in Indonesia in 1580.
From "The Second Circum-Navigation of the Earth:
Or the renowned Voyage of Sir Francis Drake,
the first General which ever sayled about the whole Globe,
begun in the yeere of our Lord, 1577.
heretofore published by M. R. Hackluyt, and now reviewed and corrected."




Male firefly in flight signaling and female on blade of grass responding

Hundreds of years later the Firefly (also called the Lightening Bug or Glowworm in its juvenile form) is still worthy of our awe.

Museums: A Little Left-over Wonder (part 6 of 6)

"The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing. One cannot help but be in awe when he contemplates the mysteries of eternity, of life, of the marvelous structure of reality. It is enough if one tries merely to comprehend a little of this mystery everyday. Never lose a holy curiosity."

— Albert Einstein

Today there are about 8,300 museums in the United States and, according to the two-volume 2005 edition of "Museums of the World", over 41,600 museums in 199 countries around the world. Most are what we expect a modern museum to be. However, there are a few Wonder Rooms, such as The Museum of Jurassic Technology in Los Angeles. It is one of these places which peaks our curiosity and makes our skin stand-up in anticipation and surprise.

For those who would like to examine an online cabinet of curiosity, visit the Museum of Dust.

Museums: The Great Exhibition (part 5 of 6)

“Yesterday I went for the second time to the Crystal Palace. We remained in it about three hours, and I must say I was more struck with it on this occasion than at my first visit. It is a wonderful place – vast, strange, new and impossible to describe. Its grandeur does not consist in one thing, but in the unique assemblage of all things. Whatever human industry has created you find there, from the great compartments filled with railway engines and boilers, with mill machinery in full work, with splendid carriages of all kinds, with harness of every description, to the glass-covered and velvet-spread stands loaded with the most gorgeous work of the goldsmith and silversmith, and the carefully guarded caskets full of real diamonds and pearls worth hundreds of thousands of pounds. It may be called a bazaar or a fair, but it is such a bazaar or fair as Eastern genii might have created. It seems as if only magic could have gathered this mass of wealth from all the ends of the earth – as if none but supernatural hands could have arranged it thus, with such a blaze and contrast of colours and marvellous power of effect. The multitude filling the great aisles seems ruled and subdued by some invisible influence. Amongst the thirty thousand souls that peopled it the day I was there not one loud noise was to be heard, not one irregular movement seen; the living tide rolls on quietly, with a deep hum like the sea heard from the distance.”

— Charlotte Bronte A visit to the Crystal Palace, 1851
The Brontes' Life and Letters, by Clement Shorter (1907)

The Great Exhibition of 1851 held at Hyde Park in central London was the first of a number of 19th century world's fairs. It was a celebration of British achievement and industry as well as gathering of world cultures.



Exterior view of The Crystal Palace, 1851
Hyde Park, London

Its centerpiece was the massive Crystal Palace. This pre-fabricated iron and glass building covered 770,000 square feet of floor space and housed 13,973 exhibitors. The building design was approved and the entire structure was manufactured and assembled within a year. The size of the building (1,848 feet wide x 456 feet deep with a centrally located barrel vault 110 feet high), its skin of clear glass (900,000 square feet of it) and the quick assembly of its pre-fabricated parts (by 2,000 unskilled labors) had a major influence on architecture of the period. The building's major drawback, a build-up of heat due to its greenhouse style construction, was temporary dealt with during the exhibition by draping canvas over the large roof.

Three million people or about a third of the population of Great Britain visited the Exhibition. High attendance created a surplus of £186,000 which was later used to found the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and the Natural History Museum, all of which were built in the area to the south of the exhibition site.

Interior view of one wing of The Crystal Palace

"As by a touch the machinery that gives life to this vast Exposition is now set in motion, so at the same instant let our hopes and aspirations awaken forces which in all time to come shall influence the welfare, the dignity, and the freedom of mankind."

— President Grover Cleveland
Opening speech for the
World's Columbian Exposition

The World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago

President Cleveland touching the
electric button to open the Exposition

The financial and cultural success of the Great Exhibition led to a period in which world’s fairs sparked the creation of museums. The Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876 generated the nucleus of the Smithsonian’s then new National Museum and Chicago's Field Museum arose from that city's hosting of the World’s Columbian Exposition of 1893.

Museums: The Beginning of the Modern Museum (part 4 of 6)

“Museums, museums, museums, object-lessons rigged out to illustrate the unsound theories of archaeologists, crazy attempts to co-ordinate and get into a fixed order that which has no fixed order and will not be co-ordinated! It is sickening! Why must all experience be systematized?... A museum is not a first-hand contact: it is an illustrated lecture. And what one wants is the actual vital touch.”

— D. H. Lawrence
Etruscan Places, Chapter 6 (1932).

The Ashmolean Museum:

The Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, England is considered the first modern museum its origin being the collections of John Tradescant the elder and his son John Tradescant the younger. As its 1656 catalog shows, the Ashmolean was essentially a large Wonder Room.

The categorizing we expect in a museum occurred over time as the collection was used for teaching. Housed in its new building, completed in 1683, the collection was divided into departments overseen by separate curators and was open regularly to the public.


The British Museum:

Like the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford the British Museum began as a private collection, consisting of 70,000 various items, the library and the herbarium of physician and naturalist, Sir Hans Sloane (1660-1753). It was bequested to the country on the condition that 20,000 pounds be given to Sloan's heirs. Otherwise the collection would be sold.

An Act of Parliament in 1753 lead to the purchase of the collection and the establishment of the British Museum. The museum was supported only from funds raised by public lottery and an occasional infusion from Parliament to purchase specific items, such as and the sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens known as The Elgin Marbles, in 1816.








Detail of frieze from the Parthenon showing a captured centaur.
From A History of Ancient Sculpture by Lucy M. Mitchell (1883).

Once the Museum opened in 1759, the irregular nature of funding made it difficult to serve the public. Because of this, even though admission was free, entry was restricted for many years at a limit of sixty visitors a day. Unlimited daily admission did not come about until 1879. Since its founding the collection has grown to over 13 million objects housed at the British Museum, 70 million at the Natural History Museum and 150 million at the British Library.

Museums: An American Wonder Room (part 3 of 6)

“Whoso would learn wisdom, let him enter here!”

— Charles Wilson Peale
Sign above the door of the Peale Museum in Philadelphia

On July 18, 1786 Charles Willson Peale opened his museum in Philadelphia to the public. Like most museums of the day, it was a private collection. Peale was best known for his portraits of important figures of the Revolutionary War and early Republic. However he was interested in diverse fields of natural history, as expected of educated men of his time.

Peale's motivation in establishing a museum was the belief that an educated populace was necessary to consolidate and advance the democracy won as a result of the American Revolution. His inspiration had occurred three years earlier when creating illustrations of Mastodon fossils for his friend Dr. John Morgan, a co-founder of the first medical school in America and a founding member of the American Philosophical Society.

Charles Willson Peale, self-portrait (1822)
Peale inviting guests into his museum
Philadelphia Museum of Art, The George W. Elkins Collection

The original Museum housed Peale’s portraits of Revolutionary War luminaries mounted high above display cases holding 90 species of stuffed and mounted mammals, 700 species of birds and 4,000 insects, along with minerals and various strange and wondrous artifacts. Peale’s Philadelphia museum eventually occupied parts of two buildings including three rooms at Independence Hall one of which was the first-floor Assembly Room where the Declaration of Independence had been signed.


Front room of Peale's Museum, ink and watercolor study (1822)


In time Peale's Museum housed the specimens collected by the Lewis and Clark Expedition as well as Native American cultural artifacts. The highlight was a mounted 11-foot high Mammoth skeleton, which had been excavated in 1801 by Peale from a farm in the Hudson River Valley of New York.

In 1810, Charles Willson Peale retired from his work at the museum, leaving its management and responsibility to his sons. In 1814 a second museum "Peale's Baltimore Museum and Gallery of Fine Arts" was established by his son Rembrandt Peale. Eventually there would be a third museum in New York City as well.

The museum in Baltimore was designed by noted architect Robert Cary Long, Sr. and was the first building in America built as a public museum. Housed in this stately three-story red brick Georgian style building, the museum was described in an early newspaper announcement as an “elegant Rendezvous for taste, curiosity and leisure.”

Announcement of mammoth skeleton

on display at Peale's Museum

Despite high hopes and ideals creditors foreclosed on the building in 1829 at which time the exhibits were moved to another location and the structure became Baltimore’s City Hall.




George Washington
As he would have looked in 1772
Painted by Charles Willson Peale in 1784
Washington-Custis-Lee Collection,
Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Virginia


The downfall of the Peale Museum empire was brought about by competition from P. T. Barnum who had opened his own dime museum in New York in 1834. Less than 10 years later a successful Barnum purchased the contents of Peale’s New York City museum. In 1849 he opened a museum in Philadelphia where Peale, mounted a strong competition. This proved disastrous to Peale. The museum closed and its contents were sold by the sheriff. Barnum and his friend Moses Kimball purchased most of Peale's collection and divided it between Barnum's American Museum in New York and Kimball's Museum in Boston.

P. T. Barnum’s American Museum in New York City

Most of the Peale Museum artifacts displayed at Barnum’s American Museum in New York City were destroyed when the building burned down in 1865. However some of the collection survived and is held at the Museum of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia.

One hundred years after the Peale's Baltimore Museum closed the grand old building that had housed it was rescued from proposed demolition. In 1931 it became the Municipal Museum of Baltimore. The Museum underwent a major renovation in 1979 and re-opened two years later with a focus on the history of Baltimore rather than art. In 1985 the facility became part of the City Life Museums system. However, the revamped museum had no more success than Peale’s original museum and closed due to financial difficulties in June of 1997.

(Read about The Beginnings of the Modern Museum in the next post on Museums)

Museums: Wonder Rooms (part 2 of 6)

"An ideal museum show would… be a mating of Brideshead Revisited... with House & Garden…, provoking intense and pleasurable nostalgia for a past that none of its audience has had."

— Robert Hughes

In Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire the concept of museum disappeared. While the powerful might accumulate art and artifacts, the general population could only view an ancient relic in a church or during a religious procession.

Not until the Renaissance did the interest in and ability to accumulate collections of non-essential objects begin to grow. Aristocrats, merchants, artists, alchemists and other educated successful citizens began gathering unusual items that interested them. These were stored and displayed in special Wonder Rooms (Wunderkammer). A person of lesser means might only have a single Cabinet of Curiosities in his house to hold such items. At the time the divisions between natural history, human history and religion were porous and the items collected were often more a reflection of the owner's interests than based on any sense of underlying organization.

One of the most famous of these collections was assembled by Danish physician and natural philosopher Olaus Wormius (1588-1655). Wormius studied natural phenomena at a time when medieval beliefs were giving way to those of the Scientific Revolution (1543-1687). He generally relied on empirical observation, noting that lemmings did not spontaneously arise from the air as was believed. However, even though he correctly stated that unicorn horns were actually from Narwhal he still believed that when ground into powder these horns could reverse poisoning.

The Museum Wormianum with Olaus Wormius in lower left

Wormius compiled engravings of the objects in his collection and speculations about their various meanings into a catalog titled the "Museum Wormianum", it was published after his death in 1655.

Still, Wonder Rooms and Cabinets of Curiosities were limited to those who could afford to assemble and maintain them. Frederick III of Denmark bought the Wormius collection and added it to his own. Before beginning his collection, King Christian I of Saxony was advised that three types of items indispensable in forming one were, "Art,… curious items from home or abroad… and… antlers, horns, claws, feathers and other things belonging to strange and curious animals."

(Read about An American Wonder Room in the next post on Museums)

Museums: In the beginning (part 1 of 6)

"- begin thou, unforgetting Clio, for all the ages are in thy keeping, and all the storied annals of the past."

— Statius, (Publius Papinius Statius ca. 45-96)
Thebaid, book 10 628-630

In Greek mythology the Muses were goddesses who inspired creativity in humans. Originally three in number, they grew by the late Hellenistic period to nine, all daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, and each in charge of a specific creative field. Clio was the muse of written history.
















The Muse Clio, lower left.
The Nine Muses
, Roman mosaic, 1st century BC
 from the Great Master's Palace, Rhodes.
In the collection of the Archaeological Museum of Cos, Cos, Greece.


The Royal Library of Alexandria in Egypt was once the largest in the ancient world, containing 700,000 volumes. It was also a teaching institution and depository for objects. Over time it grew to surround the original temple of the Muses (or Museion in Greek), which was built in the 3rd century BC. The Roman conquest of Egypt, earthquakes and fires, the rise of Christianity and finally the Muslim conquest of 642 pushed the library into the realm of myth.

(Read about Wonder Rooms in the next post on Museums)